Rate Relief in Tort-Reform States Essay Example for Free

Rate Relief in Tort-Reform States EssayAny act that is il legitimate, and not criminal, which may also be called a well-behaved crime is a Tort. The attempt to, change court cases so as to avoid false verdicts that run into thousands of dollars is called Tort reform. A vehicle accident is one(a) of the common types of tort legal suits regarding malpractices in the medical examination fields are also torts.Tort reforms usually include awarding a limited standard of money for any type of damages like accidents, pain, distress and mental agony. For example in a car accident, the damage done to the car is $ 4,000 and the inwardness you need for medical treatment is 4,000. You have a total of $ 8,000 as economic damages. If you receive like say $ 5,000 for the pain and agony you have to undergo, it would fall under non-economic damages.According to studies non-economic caps resulted in reduction in losses for general and medical malpractice cover, a decreased bounty and great er profit for insurers, for medical malpractice legal responsibility insurers. Which further resulted in a greater decline in the number of cases filed. On the other hand, physicians all over the coun feat were aspect for bare tort reform from the state officials in the 2005 legislative meeting.The stability of the insurance premium towards medical liability is the main goal of the physicians. In Connecticut physicians were looking for a cap on non-economic damages and a relief in insurance premium. In South Carolina, doctors pressed for a cap of $250,000 on non-economic damages and asked for removal of the ban against compulsory negotiations among patients and doctor.Rate Relief in Tort-Reform States According to some doctors and lawmakers, there is still a long way to go earlier they recover from the medical liability crisis. Texas is one of the crisis states among the19 states according to the American Medical Association, in which doctors are resigning, restraining high-risk procedures and retiring early on because they cant take in or afford the money for insurance.The passage of Proposition 12, which restricted non-economic damages in liability awards and payments at $250,000 per physician. After the passing of Proposition 12, which guaranteed the introduction of caps trustworthy earlierly by the Texas legislature, some physicians in Texas already reported genuine premium savings. Neal Sklaver, FACP, who was a general internist with Medical Specialists Associated in Dallas, is incredibly satisfied that his premium payments have plummeted roughly $5,000 since the Proposition 12 was passed in September 2003. According to some physicians the Proposition 12 helped the doctors, but they can be still be sued for anything.Until all liability carriers bring down their rates, the advantages of Proposition 12 might continue to elude some doctors, particularly those who are not specialized where previous rates were very high. What seems to be more disturbing is that, even doctors whose payments have reduced said that they have got used to practicing protective medicine, after so many an(prenominal) years of working in a malpractice setting.Whatever the outcome, but the tort reform is a very important measure by the Government, which should be handled carefully. iodin in fifty operations might go wrong by a doctor. Accidents happen by everyone, it is human nature to err, and we as humans should try to forgive the doctors, and see to it that they are not burdened by huge premiums,Rate Relief in Tort-Reform Stateswhich will be an obstacle in their career. The medical profession is one of the important and much needed profession.ReferencesWhat Is Tort Reform And Why Is It Bad For The Public, Corpreform.com. Retrieved 23 May 2007, http//www.corpreform.com/corpreform/2003/10/what_is_tort_re.htmlBonnie Darves, Texas tort reform, American College of Physicians, Retrieved 23 May 2007, http//www.acponline.org/journals/news/jan05/tortreform.htm Tanya Albert, Tort reform gives Texas doctors some relief, American Medical News, Retrieved 23 May 2007, http//www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2004/05/17/prsc0517.htmKathy Gill, Tort Reform State Recap, About.com, Retrieved 23 May 2007, http//uspolitics.about.com/od/healthcare/a/01_tort_reform.htmThe Issues Tort Reform, CBS Evening News, Retrieved 23 May 2007, http//www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/11/01/eveningnews/main652747.shtmlCharles Kolodkin, Tort Reform and Its Impact on Medical Malpractice Insurance, IRMI.com, Retrieved 23 May 2007, http//www.irmi.com/Expert/Articles/2003/Kolodkin03.aspx

History of Israel and the Holy Land 332 B.C. to 70 A.D. Essay Example for Free

History of Israel and the Holy Land 332 B.C. to 70 A.D. EssayThe stop from 332 B. C. to 70 A. D. refers to the age of Hellenism under the rule of Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia. The period 332 B. C. marked the conquest of Judea by the Greeks, which subsequently imposed the dissemination of the Greek carriage of life, taxation, and economic activities designed to acquire economic gains. After the death of Alexander, his generals divided the empire and consequently fought over his empire. Judah fell under direct control of Ptolemy 1 of Egypt, tho he did non seriously interfered in its religious affairs (Chapin, H. 988, Paragraph 1 Hellenism and the popish conquest). However, after Ptolemy 1s death, his successor was supplanted by the Seleucids of Syria, and in 175 B. C. Antiochus IV grabbed power. He then orchestrated a campaign against Judaism and in 167 B. C. he went and sacked the temple, (which was built in 520 B. C. ) of all its scarce belongings. This utter de secration and gross violation of the temple motivated a successful Jewish uprising under the able leadership of Judas Maccabaeus.He then established a theocratic government, which saw the rise of the Hasmonean Dynasty under the leadership of Simon Maccabaeus who was at the said(prenominal) time the spiritual leader,being the High Priest, and the air force officer-in-chief of the military. The coming of the Romans more than half(prenominal) a century later saw the rise of the chief priests to power and the eventual destruction of the temple in 70 A. D. in the hands of the Romans.The import Temple 332 B. C. to 70 A. D.The Jewish society rose to power comparable in scope to the ancient Davidic Kingdom under Hasmonean Dynasty, although both religious and political discord is soaring between the Pharisees, who were the interpreters of the written law and the Sadducees, the aristocratic priestly class who implements strict obedience to the written law. However, with the coming of the R omans in 65 B. C. capital of Israel fell in the hands of the Romans, which ended the eighty years of independent Jewish sovereignty and heralded the period of Roman domination of Israel, which began expert the same period.The Romans appointed Herod, an Idumaean, as a puppet king of Judah. His appointment as king of the Jews was subsequently confirmed by the Roman Senate in 37 B. C. He then rebuilt and magnified the platform of the temple and constructed many important buildings such as palaces, theater, citadel, hippodrome, and agora modeled after both the Hellenistic and Roman architecture. An net article published by Planet Ware . com entitled Jerusalem, Israel cited that after Herods death in 4 B.C. Jerusalem was under the care of the exalted priests, which was under Roman Procurators (Planet Ware, Par. 2). Chapin notable that Rome granted the Jew religious autonomy as well as some legislative and judicial rights through the Sanhedrin (Chapin, par. 5, Hellenism and the Roman Conquest). The second temple played a great role in the so-called city of the high priest that is, referring to the prominence of the Jewish religious leaders during this time.The Great Sanhedrin made the temple mount in Jerusalem the seat of both the religious and judicial powers vested upon them by the Roman Procurators. Their scope of authority includes religious, political, and juristic authority such as trying a high priest, crackvising certain rituals, and even declaring war (Chapin). This religious and judicial body was primarily compose of priestly Sadducees, which may be numbering of about seventy-one sages. The Sanhedrins control and judicial authority ended with the rise to power of Agrippa 1 in 41 to 44 B. C.The grand son of Herod 1 the Great, Agrippa 1 extended the city northward by constructing the third wall. However, the fanatical sect of the Jewish chauvinistic movement cognize as the zealot challenged the Roman control of Judah in A. D. 66. This uprising broug ht the Roman legions to a protracted siege, which was carried out by Vespasian, the Roman commander in Judah. The revolt however was crushed by his son Titus in A. D. 70 and Jerusalem and the second temple was destroyed by the Romans (Chapin) Hellenism and the Jews (Evaluations and Commendations)Hellenization, according to an profits article entitled Celtic and Medeterranean Interaction is the process by which non-Greeks were made more or less Greeks, assimilated into Greek culture if not acculturated. The article noted that the extent of Hellenization during the time of Alexander reach even further to the lands of the Barbarians (Celtic and Mideterranean Interaction). The article cited that Greeks abroad carried with them any thing that could help in advancing Greekness and they were more decidedly consciously Greeks and built cities and towns introducing urban structures and new ideas.Chapin pointed out that despite of the strong emphasis on priestly rule and Judaism, Jewish soc iety was greatly cultivated by the Greek Hellenism, particularly cities like Jerusalem, except in their adherence to monotheistic faith. However, life in the provinces and rural areas was comparatively unchanged (Chapin). Jerusalem subtly and speedily adopted the Greek culture particularly the Greek language, games and sports, and even the early literature of the new faith, Christianity (Chapin, Par. ). According to an internet article entitled The encroachment of Hellenism on the Jews, though Hellenism was neither offensive nor beneficial yet it poses serious challenge to Judaism (Old Testament History, Par. 1). The article noted that Hellenistic culture presents serious threats to Judaism in the same way that idolatry of the Canaanites neighbor of the Pre-exilic Israel served as a great temptation, which had caused their nations destruction and later Diasporas.The impact of Hellenism on Post Exilic Israel was difficult them to resist in remaining true to their faith as Hellenis m offers relief from laborious struggle for existence. Hellenism viewed life as a continuous serial publication of well-disposed festivities, comforts, and ease. It was under Hellenistic period that public places for eating and bathing was offered to the public with customary music of strings such as the harp (O. T. History, par. 7) which instantly may be characterized by the restaurants and public swimming pools.Great public libraries, potential economic opportunities, and sophisticated Greek education would have strong arouse to may nobler Jews and merchants, which made the Hellenistic way of life easily acceptable. On the other hand, conservative Jews particularly Palestinian Jews were not impressed by the social and cultural advances brought about by Hellenism, courtesy of the Greeks. These conservatives despised the Hellenized Jews on the grounds that they had compromised their religion.An internet article entitled The Church History cited that the Hellenized Jews were forbi dden in the temple rather they were directed to attend Greek-speaking synagogues to hear and understand the Torah being read in Greek as they could no longer speak nor understand Hebrew. The calculate therefore, of Hellenization was to assimilate every culture, or the acculturation of every nations culture under one culture, the Greek culture, is not only a magnificent idea or military strategy if indeed it can be categorized in that way, rather, it is highly advance idea designed to rule the military man in utmost love-in-idleness and economic prosperity.This impact could have changed the course of history had Alexander livelonger than he had lived. It cannot be denied that the influence of Hellenism still benefits todays generations and the idea of hellenization still dominates the society in many ways. Interpretation Hellenism was a subtle way of conquering the world. Alexander may have conquered much of the known world during his time but his military and political leadership did not live long enough to achieve what he desired, to conquer the world.Perhaps Hellenism was think by Alexander for a peaceful conquest. Indeed, his model Hellenistic community in Alexandria, Egypt was meant to attract the known civilizations of the benefit of Hellenization. True to his intention, the world was conquered by the Greeks not by swrangle and spears or by sheer military force but by festivities, by cultural and educational advancement, and by economic opportunities Hellenism offers. Today, the Greek influence still remains after thousands of years in many aspects of the social and cultural life, including arts.Hellenization can be compared to the idea of the democracy promoted by the remaining super power of the world today. By Hellenizing the known world, Alexander can build an alliance with many countries just like the idea of democracy. In other words the same concept in promoting democracy lies in the Hellenization. It symbolized the hegemonic power of Greece un der the leadership of Alexander the Great. Conclusions The history of Israel from 332 B. C. up to 70 A. D. as a secretary of Greece rise to power, and dominance of the world, at the height of their glory, as well as the mark of Israels resurgence to power which they so longed, under the Hasmonean dynasty, although this period marks both rise and fall of the three nations involve, its most important contribution in human civilizations was the spread of Hellenism, which truly brought not only economic benefits, but also culturally and socially, and the developments of sports. Hellenism has brought much contribution that even the generation of today is benefiting.The many borrowed words that help us understand meanings of the fast events are just one of the many benefits of Hellenization. Hellenization therefore symbolizes the hegemony of the Greek nation as well as Alexanders desire to rule the world in peace and in prosperity as by acculturation and assimilation, it would have mean no boundaries or no enemies, rather it promotes unity and cooperation among nations. The blessings of democracy that we now extol may be compare to the blessings of Hellenism had Alexander livelonger.

New Drug Application of Paclitaxel: Results Discussion

New Drug Application of Paclitaxel Results DiscussionThe present research work is an attempt made to design and exploitation of a new drug application for of Paclitaxel sustained electrical outlet microspheres by using garret Gelation and solvent evaporation methods is to achieve first order to make better bioavailability and reduce side effects of paclitaxel. For this purpose different polymers like HPMC K100, EUDRAGIT RS100, ETHYL CELLULOSE, and in combination were used. Based on the above investigational reports. I conclude the undermentioned results and discussions.7.1. Pre cookery StudiesThe reports indicate the exhibit good and passable flow properties. So on that point is no need to improve the flow of the powder. The regression cherish obtained from analytical method development in buffer media is 0.999.so, the drug is exhibiting linearity in concentration 2ug to 10 ug.The FT-IR spectral studies indicate good stability and no chemical interaction mingled with the drugs and excipients used.7.1.1. Identification of paclitaxelIn identification of API it was embed that paclitaxel was soluble in methanol, ethanol, acetone7.2 Stability studies7.2.1. Photo stabilityWhen paclitaxel was exposed to light for a result of 2 months (60days) it was found that 0.2% of the drug was degraded.7.2.2. Acidic degradationWhen the drug was exposed in acidic medium 0.1N HCL for a period of 24 hrs , it was found that there is no degradation of the drug in basic mediums showing 100% stability in the acidic medium.7.2.3. Alkaline degradationWhen the drug was exposed in different alkaline mediums like phosphate buffer 7.4 for a period of 24 hrs, it was found that there is no degradation of the drug in alkaline mediums showing 100% stability in alkaline medium.7.2.4 Temperature stress conditionsWhen the drug was exposed to different temperatures (00C, 100C, 200C, 300C, 350C, 450C and 500C, 600C) for a time period of 1hr, 3hr, 6hr, 12hr, 24hr, was found that there is no degradation of the drug in Temperature stress conditions.7. 3.Solubility studiesSolubility of paclitaxelPaclitaxel is soluble in methanol, ethanol, acetone etc.paclitaxel is in soluble in waterMelting PointIt was excessively found Melting point of paclitaxel was 2160c,DensityOn analyzing for density it was found that paclitaxel showed bulk density value 0.593gm/ml and tapped density value 0.514 gm/ml,Carrs IndexThe value of Carrs Index for 13.32 and drugs showed good flow characteristicsCompressibility IndexThe value of Compressibility Index for was 14.28, and drugs showed good characteristics.Hausners ratioThe value of Hausners ratio for paclitaxel was 1.16 drugs showed good flow characteristics.Angle of ReposeThe studies on angle of repose showed that was 26.83 values indicated good flow properties.Stability studiesFTIR studiesFrom the FTIR spectra, it was concluded that correspondent characteristic peaks with minor difference for the drug and their construction. Hence, it appears that there was no chemical interaction between the drugs and excipients used. The IR Spectra of paclitaxel with HPMC K100, Eudragit Rs100, Ethyl cellulose were shown in figs. The following peaks were observed in as well as paclitaxel with excipients.EVALUATION OF MICROSPHERESDetermination of percentage yieldThe percentage yield was estimated from all the 18 formulations the results obtained between the range 86.03 %to 76.56%.all the formulation was found within the limits.Drug entrapment efficiencyThe drug entrapment of all formulation of paclitaxel microspheres varied from 86.19 to 67.38Particle size analysisThe particle size of the microspheres of the paclitaxel formulations varied from 836 m to 191m.In vitro drug blowhole studies The formulation F1, F4, F7 contains HPMC K 100,Eudragit Rs100, Ethyl cellulose, as a polymers in 1% concentration prep atomic number 18d by ionic gelation method. These formulations subjected to drug resign studies in 7.4 ph phosphate buffer a s a dissolution medium.The formulation F1 that containing 1% HPMC K100, gist of the drug is release 36.92% in 48 hrs. . And the formulation F4 containing 1% Eudragit Rs 100, meat of the drug release 43.92 in 48hrs, The formulation F7 containing 1 % Ethyl cellulose , sum total of the drug release 68.96 in 48hrs.The formulation F2 that containing 20mg HPMC k 100, 10mg, Eudragit Rs 100, amount of drug is release 41.73 in 48hr. the formulation F3containing 10mg Ethyl cellulose, 20mg HPMC K 100, amount of drug release 46.98 in 48 hrs.the formulation F5 containing 20mg Eudragit Rs100, 10mgHPMC K 100 amount of drug release 50.24 in 48 hrs. the formulation F6 containing 20mg Eudragit, 10mgEthyl cellulose amount of drug release53.28 in 48hrs. The formulation F8 that containing 10mg HPMC k 100, 20mgEthyl cellulose, amount of drug is release 63.24 in 48hrs, the formulation F9containing 20mgEthyl cellulose, 10mg Ethyl cellulose, amount of drug release 56.23 in 48 hrs.From formulations F1 to F9 shows cumulative percentage drug release in 48 hr in between 36.92% to 68.96%.The formulation F10, F13, F16 contains HPMC K 100,Eudragit Rs100, Ethyl cellulose, as a polymers in 1% concentration prepared by solvent evaporation method. These formulations subjected to drug release studies in 7.4 ph phosphate buffer as a dissolution medium.The formulation F10 that containing 1% HPMC K100, amount of the drug is release 42.28% in 48 hrs. . And the formulation F13 containing 1% Eudragit Rs 100, amount of the drug release 49.32 in 48hrs, The formulation F16 containing 1 % Ethyl cellulose , amount of the drug release 79.42in 48hrs.The formulation F11 that containing 20mg HPMC k 100, 10mg, Eudragit Rs 100, amount of drug is release 46.43 in 48hr. the formulation F12containing 10mg Ethyl cellulose, 20mgHPMC K 100, amount of drug release 53.67 in 48 hrs. The formulation F14 containing 20mg Eudragit Rs100, 10mgHPMC K 100 amount of drug release 55.86 in 48 hrs. the formulation F15 containing 20mg Eudragit, 10mgEthyl cellulose amount of drug release59.11 in 48hrs. The formulation F17 that containing 10mg HPMC k 100, 20mgEthyl cellulose, amount of drug is release 74.82 in 48hrs. the formulation F18containing 20mgEthyl cellulose, 10mg Ethyl cellulose, amount of drug release 65.24 in 48 hrs.From formulations F10 to F18 shows cumulative percentage drug release in 48 hr in between 42.28% to 79.42%.The release profiles showed a characteristic initial burst release followed by a lag period and further initiation of sustained release. After the initial lag, a tight linear and continuous release was observed over 48 hr Comparison of in-vitro drug release profiles for all formulations F1to F9 and F10 to F18 are shown in Fig (7,8) and the information is shown in Tables (13,14).Effect of method of preparationIonic gelationsolvent evaporation1. On particle size From formulations F1to F9 are by ionic gelation method.Spheres obtained are large than desired particle size range i.e 60 9-875.m.formulations F10 to F18 are by solvent evaporation, are in desired particle size range i.e191-303 m.So that Spheres obtained are smaller than by ionic gelation method.2. On Drug releaseDrug release is sustained in formulations prepared by solvent evaporation than with ionic gelation.Therefore from above results solvent evaporation method is selected.Effect of polymersHPMC K100, Ethyl cellulose,Eudragit RS100 are three different polymers used as sustained release polymers.Formulations F1,F4,F7 by ionic gelation where as F10,F13,F16, by solvent evaporation are with single polymer respectively.Remaining all formulations are combination of two each polymers of respective ratiosHPMC K100 is hydrophilic,Ethyl cellulose is hydrophobic nature.Combination of Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic polymers is tested at different ratios to determine effect on sustained drug releaseAlso HPMC K100 with coating polymer Eudragit RS 100 combination is tested at different ratiosAmong all these ,F10 i. e,with single polymer HPMC K100 by solvent evaporation method shows desired drug release compared to combination of polymers.Therefore it is concluded that there is no effect of combination of polymers on drug release of paclitaxel microspheres.Kinetics of drug release from optimized formulationThe dynamics of the drug release was evaluated by drug release rate models namely zero order, First order. The mechanisms of drug release was evaluated by First order drug release. The dissolution kinetics selective information was defected in table 15 and the comparative dissolution profile was given in the figure 9 .The drug release followed zero order kinetics in all polymers employed. The graph drawn in between time Vs cumulative % drug release show in figure 12 to 15.

Do Mergers and Acquisitions Fulfil Desired Objective?

Do Mergers and Acquisitions Fulfil Desired Objective?Do Mergers And Acquisitions Fulfil Their Desired Objective? And How populate Are Affected By the Result of These Mergers?DissertationTable of ContentsCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION1.1 BACKGROUNDRestructuring of a firm has become a major(ip) bea in the financial and economic environment all over the world. A company may grow internally, or externally. The aim of the management is to increase the profit. Most firms grow by dint of internally which take place when firms existing divisions grow through normal capital budgeting activities.(S.Vanitha 2007) The industrial restructuring has embossed important issues both(prenominal) for the contrast and for public more(prenominal)over merger and encyclopaedisms may be critical to the strong expansion of telephone line firms as they evolve through successive stages of growth and development and most important for wise product markets by a firm may require M and As at some stages in t he firms development . The successful competition in international markets may depend on capabilities obtained in a by the federal agency and competent fashion through M As. (M Selvam 2007)Merger and acquisitions continues to experience dramatic growth. Record breaking mega mergers suck up become popular in the world. In the stand ten years and onwards some of the largest mergers and acquisitions took place in Europe. This was underscore by the fact that the largest deal of all time was a hostile acquisition of a German company by a British firm.(Beena P.L 2000)Since the start of twenty first century the nature of merger and acquisition even more common in the economical growth. It becomes even more global especially in Asia, Latin and S stunnedh America. Over the past quarter of the century we have noticed that merger waves have become longer and more frequent in surrounded by shrunken as rise when these trends meldd with the fact that MA has rapidly spread crosswise the mo dern world, we see that the field is increasingly becoming as ever more important office of the worlds of incorporated pay and corporate strategy. (Canagavally , R.2000)Merger and acquisitions are imparts real important part in corporate strategy. They are the interesting and controversial tools if the firm do not essential to grow internally by capital investment and it raise affect the shareholders wealth of both the firms (Legare.1998). The management of the target companies is worried about their jobs that can be affected the cost reduction strategies consists of reduction in labour force (Gould, 1998) the strategies at both local and national takes are important and concerned at transactions in their industries. e.g (defence utilities etc.) Customers and suppliers are interested , as they want to know who they leave behind be dealing with in the future (Buono. 2003). All the big deals are thus reported in the media, receive a large coverage, and get the attention of the public as well.People are very important part of any organization but due to the increasing numbers of mergers mingled with the companies they are largely affected and most of them get caught up in a merger or acquisition-by chance, Many of the people afterwards working four to five years period are losing their jobs and facing severe reductions in situation and responsibility and, in general, being confronted with major questions about their careers, As a result , at times we are unsure whether our own feelings about what is contingency to these individuals are biasing our interpretation of what is divergence on. In this project the writer going to investigate on mergers between the professional services firms. fit to Steven et al (2000) mergers and acquisitions decisions that are underinterpreted based on financial analysis, influence and legal positions , However , it has been proved by a number of researchers that factors equivalent informal power, low productivity , short quality , reduced commitment , hidden costs and voluntary turnover pr lawsuit the combined banks from reaching expected con warmnessmation levels (Legare 1998). This is the reason that many companies caseful difficulties then they pass through their brook-integration processes (Buono 2003) fit in to Catwright Cary (1995) that mergers and acquisitions should be seen care marriages where both parties will is very important for the success of new entity. At the time ii divers(prenominal) companies decide to come together as a result of MA act, then the levels of instability in the macro instruction and micro environment of both companies is challenged. So it is and so been recommended that companies should chose the most appropriate merger and acquisition process and strategy. However Buono (2003) has suggest that each possibility has its own strengths and weaknesses and in that respectfore context of MS and its main objectives play important role.Cartwright and Coop er has pointed out that MA depends upon combination of related functions like integration of people, systems, practices and culture. The critical review of the literature has recommended that most of research has been focused at studying single characteristics of MA in isolation. Moreover the dynamics of MA variables that impact on success and failures ratio has not been undertaken in the literature and there is a gap for research.This study will be focus to explore the major drivers and variables and their piece on the success of merger and acquisitions across industries from a corporate strategicalal perspective.1.2 Rationale foundation ResearchMergers and acquisitions is one of the common strategies in to solar days business world. Gould (1998) has conducted a survey involving 12000 managers from antithetical countries and according to the result of his survey more then 1000 companies were involved in acquisitions or a merger in two years between 1995 and 1997.moreover merg er and acquisitions has become the leading strategic options. However, the achievement of the combined companies has been lower than expected. According to Buono (2003) the basic drivers of MA notwithstanding involved in financial, operating(a) and strategic aims and objectives. So therefore my main area of focus of this research is to explore the major drivers and variables and their effect on the success of merger and acquisitions across industries from a corporate strategic perspective.1.3 Aims and ObjectivesThe basic aim of this project is to understand whether mergers and acquisitions always fulfil sought after objective. The aims specific areas are as follows.To explore the major variables that impact on the success of merger and acquisition different industries from a corporate strategic perspectiveTo explore the corporate strategy in achieving desired results from MA activitiesTo esteem the impact of the mergers on an employees and examining the programmes for dealing wi th separation anxiety for employees.1.4 Dissertation StructureThe official Structure of the dissertations is being applied which is provided by the university and analysis has been done which get the theme and the objectives of the research. The structure of this report is summarized as followsChapter 1 Introduction of the research topic and lays the basis for the rationale of selection of the theme under scrutiny. It introduces the effect of MA on business and effectuate that they expected. The chapter also summarizes the rationale for selection of topic and states the aim and objectives of this research.Chapter 2 Consists of review of the literature that has been produced in the domain of mergers and acquisitions and their desired effects for companies. It has highlighted some of the highly respected literature in the field of aims and objectives of this research.Chapter 3 Provide the methodology and strategy adopted by the researcher to undertake this research. It points out th e strength and weaknesses of using different data collection mechanisms and has indicaten how they fit in the larger context of aims and objectives of this research.Chapter 4 very important chapter consists of analysis and findings regarding the importance of strategic alignment within a merger or an acquisition activity with the help of a range of case studies. The chapter developed recommendations for companies under the light of macro indicators, theories and qualitative data gathered through this research.Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive conclusion from this research and gives a list of recommendations for companies that can be drawn from this focused research.Chapter 2 Literature ReviewIn this chapter an attempt has been made to briefly review the research already undertaken and methodology employed moreover the study has been produced in the domain of aims and objective of the project and it has been divided into number of different sections so that reader understand with ease.2.1 OverviewConcept of Merger and AcquisitionOver the last a couple of(prenominal) years different companies have engaged in domestic and international mergers and acquisitions to match the macroeconomic trends operating on a worldwide scale in the market place. Up till now the last-ditch success of a companys global strategy may depend on how well it manages the monstrous human resource fit issue associated with strategic customer cantered decisions and strategies. The literature presents the perceptiveness and resolving interpersonal management issues that result from organization, squad, and individual misalignments. An unfeigned merger and acquisition integration project is used to discuss the application of this approach (Thomas L. Legare in his paper Understanding and Managing Human Resource Integration resign) M A defined by Arnold (2002) as combination of two firms of roughly equal size on roughly equal terms and in which the shareholders remain as joint ownersM A activities in late 20th centuryIn 1960s Mergers and acquisitions first became an important topic within the organization management meetings. It is usual to consider merger and acquisition in terms of the extent to which the activities of the acquired organization are related to those of the acquirer. The most common miscellany proposes four main types (Walter 1985 Hovers, 1973 Kitching ,1967). These being1- VerticalThe process in which two organizations combined within the same industry.2- HorizontalThe process in which two exchangeable organizations combined within the same industry3- ConglomerateIn this process acquired organization is in comp permitely different field of business activity4 ConcentricIn this process the acquired organization is in a different but related field in to which the acquiring company merge its business.According to Schweiger and Ivancevice, 1987 mergers and acquisitions can be considered to differ in terms ofMotive and transactional typeThe envisa ged degree of integrationCommon objectives behind M ActivityAccording to Napier (1989), in a review of the literature, draws the distinction between financial or value increase motives, and managerial or non value maximizing motives. Mergers known as financial or value maximizing motives when the main objective is to increase the profit and decrease the risk involved in business moreover non value maximizing motives relate to merges which occur primarily for new(prenominal) strategic reasons ( Halpern, 1983). Moreover according to handy (1993) creation of shareholders value is the underlying aim behind any MA activity. However , there is a range of strategies involve to improve financial performances and consequently increase shareholders value.According to Marks, (1988b). thither is lots of risk involved in activity like Mergers and acquisitions involving the collective annual investment of billions of pounds and affecting the working lives of millions of employees. It has been r ecommended in future that 50 to 80 percent of all mergers are considered to be financially unsuccessful (Marks 1988b), most probably in financial return, represent at best an each way bet(Lorenz, 1986)The popularity of Merger and acquisitions is still strong despite of the fact that it has been frequently fail to achieve the financial growth (Hovers 1973 Farrent 1970 Jemison and Sitkin, 1986). Indeed there is lots of separate that Britain and the USA are currently experiencing an unprecedented wave of merger activity (Morgan, 1988 Hughes, 1989). In the last 10 years , there have been over 23000 registered acquisitions in the USA , and before the end of this decade one in four of the Us workforce will have been affected by merger activity ( Fulmer, 1986) with the approach of 1992 , a similar trend is predicted for Europe.The Merger and acquisition is facilitated by number of factors.Market ConditionsMarket conditions are changing day by day and in this environment there is a need t o consolidate or capture new market so strategic mergers and acquisitions become more spellbinding and expedient alternative response to the setting up new outlets, and at the same time provide a tool to finish the competition ( Meeks , 1977)increase Availability of niftyMergers and acquisitions activities has been increased because the organization and financial institution may need of capital from outside countries because of low interest rate.More companies for sale.There are lots of companies come in to the market because of number of reasons like successful entrepreneurs of the rank war years reach retirement age , because of families issues and there is not natural successor within the family.The Easing of Regulations.According to McManus Hergert, 1988. Gartrell Yantek suggested that acquisition activity is related to political climate in that right of centre administration incur activity.The Need to share RiskMergers and acquisitions is very important if u need to share risk like new product development often results in the formation of joint ventures , mergers and other types of strategic alliance.The existence of complex Indivisible ProblemsAll of these can be considered to be logical economic and marketing factors, which mention possible the decisions to acquire, These conditions , particularly the need to share risk and problems solving, have also contributing to the increasing trend towards the formation of joint ventures and Mergers (Harrigan, 1988)(vii) Unrecognized Psychological MotivesAccording to Levinson (1970) suggests one such(prenominal) motive to be business organisation of risk McManus and Hergest (1988) suggest that the decisions happens when CEO is bored and wants to find a new game to play or to create some excitation amongst senior managers (Hunt, 1988)2.2 Impact of Mergers and AcquisitionsMerger and Acquisitions have the prime aim to maximise the firms profit and shareholders wealth like any other strategic growth option, b ut there has been a risk of failure so the debate in the literature among theorists and practitioners as to the factual strength of the strategy in creating shareholders value worth the risk of failure. The review literature that surrounds different prospects like shareholders, acquirer , targets has been studied on short , medium and long term value creation through the MA activity . The hobby different categories of studies can be highlighted.Affect of MA Activities on PeopleThe Human Side of Mergers and Acquisitions is about to impact that mergers and acquisitions have on people in the workplace the psychological difficulties that people experience, the culture clashes that can emerge in organizations that can emerge in organizations during the post merger integration period, and the ways in which these problems can manifest themselves such as conference breakdowns a We-they mentality between the component organizations in a merger, lowered commitment , drops in productivity , organizational power struggles and office politicking , and red of severalize organizational members. We adopt primarily and organization development (OD) perspective on mergers and acquisitions given the myriad problems (Thomas L Legare)The Existing evidence on the effects of mergers and acquisitions on efficiency or value comes from two basic types of large sample studies event studies and performance studiesEvent studies consider the returns to the shareholders of targets and acquirers in the days before and after an acquisition contract .These studies consistently find that the combined returns to acquirer and target stockholders are unequivocally compulsive .These positive returns imply that the market anticipates that acquisitions on bonny will create value. These studies and reactions do not, however, provide insight into the sources of the value changes in mergers or whether the expectations of value changes are ultimately realized. Furthermore, the combined returns co ver a resistant range of responses from very positive to very negative.Cross sectional analyses of event period returns provide some evidence that the broad range of combined announcement period returns reflects the markets ability to forecast an acquisitions success. For example both Mitchell and Lehn (1990) and Kaplan and weisbach (1992) find the there is a relation between (1) acquirer and combined returns and (2) the ultimate outcome of the acquisition. Other studies examine a number of different determinants of the cross-sectional variation in returns associated with acquisitions. (see e.g Lang , Stulz, and Walkling 1991 . Maloney , McCormick , and Mitchell 1993 morock, Shliefer , and Vishny 1990)These Cross-Sectional analyses of event period returns provide some understanding of the nature of the market reaction to acquisition announcements.They do not , however , examine whether the anticipated value creation or improved productivity materializes, Nor do they have a great de al to say about the organizational mechanisms and management practices that drive acquisition success or failure.Studies of post merger performance attempt to measure the longer-term implications of mergers and acquisitions using both accounting and stock return data. Studies of accounting data fail to find consistent evidence of improved performance or productivity gains. (see e.g, Healy , Palepu, and Ruback 1992 and Ravenscraft and Scherer 1987) similarly , studies that focus on acquirers long term stock performance find mixed results abnormally negative stock returns after the acquisition ( agraqwal , Jaffe, and Mandelker 1992), no abnormal returns (franks , Harris , and Titman 1991) and negative abnormal returns only for stock mergers (Mitchell and Stafford 1996) Like the announcement period event studies, longer term performance and event studies document substantial cross sectional variation in performance , but do not study the sources of value changes in mergers and acquisit ions.In sum , there are a number of questions that the existing economics and finance literature on mergers and acquisitions leaves unanswered , Existing work provides mixed results on the amount impact of mergers and acquisitions More importantly , existing work offers little insight into the determinants of an acquisitions success or failures.Research on the basis of Capital MarketCapital market is one of the research category used as central information point. According to Healey (1992), the stock market data reflects the effects of MA as it reflects future profits and dividends expected by the post integration entity moreover these researchers believe that the result has been found swayed by the researchers personal orientation course an hypothesis. It is been analyse that majority among studies that have been covered lower then desired effects created through analyses based on capital market data.Event hire MethodologyAccording to data et al (1992) have indicated that these studies are based on the hypothesis that markets across the industrialized world are highly well-organized and therefore soon after the MAn announcement moreover it depends on the future financial benefits or losses. The result of such studies have highlighted the majority of MA activities do create affects that can range from significant to normal (Sudarsanam 2003) but the people working along with the field and many other critics have argued that the methodology is only affective for small projects to obtain the desired affects and does not represent long term desired affects in the medium to long term.Short Run ObjectivesA large number of organizations plan for financial gains within a short period of time when the merger date is finalized they are looking to achieve this objective, 30% and 10% abnormal returns have been found for the target shareholders Sudarsanam et al (1996)Long Run ObjectivesAccording to Agarwar (1992) the organizations long term desired affect through MA act ivity that has gained an increasing interests among researchers after the data is available for the last wave of MA in the 1990s. There has been a mixture of results as- 10% abnormal returns over 5 years MA periods Fama French (1993) showed positive 9% abnormal returns for the acquired and negative -4% abnormal returns for the acquirer and sudarsanam Mahate 2003 showed a range of negative -18% to positive+1% abnormal returns in MA situation. Although it has been found out that many of these studies have used different models, benchmarks and organizational data, but there is a general consensus that MA abnormal desired affects in the long term.Operational Planning ResearchThe best way to analyse the affect of MA activity is to study the operational performance of the firms involved. The operational data consists of accounting data like cash flow and profit and loss statement are used by such studies (Healey 1992) Herman and Lowenstein (1988) used these technique on data gathered du ring 1975 to 1983 and found that no significant improvements in the performance of post MA entities. Healey et al (1992) found a meagre 3% operational performance among companies analyzed. However the same data was later analyzed under improved methods and found no operational performance. The results show large number of failures in creating substantial desired affects through operational analysis.Recent Merger and Acquisitions trendsIn the above table shows the recent trends in the field, let us being with our full dissertation of the subject of MA. This will be begin with a discussion of the basic terminology used in the field.2.3 major(ip) STRATEGIC ISSUESAccording to Cartwright and Cooper (1995) in order to get the desired objective during the MA activity the internal environment of firms should be synchronized. It can therefore recommend that integration of people, their systems, procedures, practice and organizational culture is extremely important in order to get the desired objective.Mr David (2007) suggest that the internal aspects of firms that are going to merge can be divided into two core competencies that can help to minimize the factors involved the failure of MA strategies.These core competencies lie in the field of corporate strategy which usually lack coordination during MA activities. The main limiting aspects of MA in terms of strategic importance that can play a vital role by using their core competencies have been highlighted as followsOrganizational cultureThe cultural differences is the single largest cause of lack of proposed performance, achieving the desired target and objective and time consuming issues in the running of successful business ( Bijilsma frankema , 2001) according to him culture plays a important part in employees indigence in the development to new business he says that cultural clash is the most dangerous factors when two companies decide to combine moreover the things like styles , set and missions is the part of factor influencing the MA.According to (Covin et al, 1997) the employees required five to seven years after the merger to feel truly incorporated. Due to the multitude of these changes many problems arises like loss of job, also financial debt and fears of jobless.(Mirvis and Marks 1992) moreover he says that after merger the new team is also di accent marking and anxiety for the people other fear include the loss of effective and close team members,as well as the uncertainty about the new team members and supervisors to be ancestral the employees when forced to deal with new team members and managers they may develop fears of taking risks and raising sensitive subject. This may adopt us verses them thinking, where trust for the new team members will be minimal (Mirvis and Marks, 1992).Management facing this kind of behaviour may have to pay the high price of loss of coordination and initiative among the employees of the new business combination. Moreover the issues and disagreemen t will be more difficult to resolve, so the time after the merger is the most difficult time for the management and new team members to move forward as a whole. Appelbaum etal, (2000)StressAccording to (Datta et al , 1992) the process of merger and acquisitions consists of biggest change at the individual and organizational level in the history of organizations because of this the process is stressful. When one culture combines with another the employees feel as through they have lost control over important aspects of their loves, and in an attempt to regain control, they often withdraw. So it creates stress within individual , i.e reduced performance and job satisfaction . ( Berger and Ofec 1996)According to Schweiger Denisi (1991) the employees after the MA go through a time of increased anxiety uncertainty and stress. They are concerned about their new position it will create more stress in them so communication plays the vital role during the merger so that employees know what is going on and how they might be affected during and after the post integration period. Thus it can be suggested that while negotiations have been compared to flirting before marriages , and the closing of the deals to forming a new family , employees reaction can be associated with lamentation (Katinka , 2004)Organizational change and resistanceChanges after merger announcement like stress, symptoms, work related factors, health status, and lifestyle. Personal characteristics were composed of age, sex, height, weight, and marital status in both surveys. Moreover stress related symptoms like anxiety, impatience and depression were dichotomized by either having a complaint or not so following a MA , a complex set of organizational , managerial and personal changes or inevitable.Jensen Rubock (1983) claim that in order to cope with the changes and resist with the changes there is a way to select a strategy and a set of specific approaches for implementing an organizational change ef fort. It is very important for managers to implement changes successfully in order to cope with the changes. The researchers have introduced six different strategies in order resist the changes after the merger and four major reasons why peoples resist changes.Image, identity and confidenceAccording to (Ravenscraft and Scherer 1988) image , identity and confidence of the human resource may reduced after the combination process it has been send that most of the employees will feel uncertain and will need some relaxation environment .It can be recommended that the peoples effected by this process can prove dangerous for the management they can change the ownership moreover the employees who are affected by the process tend to protect their identity and confidence through gross profit and humble and hence they try to maintain their status and confidence with experience that they are the part of new entity, if the cultural factor is not adequately taken into account at this stage of t he merger , there will be so less time to contain it after the merger.Weston et al (2001) discuss the fear and stress associated with a merger. Schwert (1996) argue that when the objectives after the merger are not met , the managing teams of both companies are the employees of the acquired company enter a cycle of escalating and distrust. In other words, managers of the acquiring company press for increased control, while employees of the acquired company resist and demand their autonomy. Others view mergers and acquisitions as power games , which create some excitement fro bored CEOs.CommunicationTompkins (1984) defined organizational communication as the study of sending and receiving messages that create and maintain a system of deliberately corresponding activities or forces of two or more personsOrganizational communication is the exchange of messages through collective creation maintenance and transformation of organizational meaning. Members develop commonly unsounded patte rns of expectations of organizational action through communication. Moreover communication with the employees is a very important factor throughout the entire MA process and creates a positive effect on employees through the trying time.According to John et al (1999) that communication plays a vital role in the combination of different and assorted cultures. The cultures can be at conflicting ends and therefore should be understood by the top management during integration period moreover according to Richard et al (1999) the human resource department should plan for the change in organization and they should know before this process that what going to happen with the company when two cultures combine as the result of merger. So in the process of merger only decision is not enough but the proper communication of these decisions among the company is very important moreover management works horizontally and vertically through leadership, control and organization.(Sudarsanam and Mahate , 2003)FLOW OF CASHDespite of the fact that many people loss their job in the process but the same time high rate of voluntary turnover linked with the process moreover it includes substantial jet of talent and expertise. According to Ravenscraft and scherer, 1988) report executive turnover rates as high as 75% in the first three years of post acquisition period. Unplanned personnel losses are not necessarily confined to the more senior levels of the organization. Typically, acquired or merged organizations experience on boilers suit rate of staff turnover of at lest 30% in the first two years post merger period (Cartwright and Cooper 1995)2.4 Success and FailuresA large number of mergers and acquisitions are unsuccessful .Over the last fifteen years, 23% of all merged firms worldwide reported lower profits than comparable non-merged firms (Gugler et al.(13)) Daimler Chrysler, the effect of the largest industrial merger ever, for example , has only posted low or negative profits s ince its birth in 1998-including the biggest loss in German business history in 2001. The disappointing results of mergers have been puzzling commentators and academics alike.In the management literature, poor merger performance has often been connected to unsuccessful addition of different corporate cultures. Cultural differences, however, are not enough to explain failures. First, firms seem to be aware of organisational difficulties when taking merger decisions. DaimlerChrysler, for example, anticipated post merger Challenges. Second, mergers between partners with closer corporate cultures sometimes perform worse ( Morosini et

Wireless Sensor Networks: Applications and Forms

Wireless Sensor Ne bothrks Applications and Forms1 Wireless Sensor NetworkIn this chapter, wireless divulgeor earnings (WSN) principles argon cosmos shortly introduced and discussed. In order to increase the level of intellect for analyzing Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) ashess it is useful to study the engine room behind them the technologies which are presented in this section.Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are distributed and independent sensors that are committed and worked together to measure quantities such as temperature, humidity, pressure, noise levels or vibrations 5. WSNs croup measure vehicular movement (velocity, location, etc.) and monitor conditions such as lightning condition, soil exactup and motion 5. Nowadays, WSNs are utilized in m whatsoever common applications such as vehicle applications. Some of vehicle applications are vehicle tracking and detection, tire pressure monitoring, vehicle speed detection, vehicle direction indicator, traffic control, re versing aid sensors etc. much(prenominal)(prenominal) applications feces be divided up in major categories such as safety, protection, environment and logistics.To implement WSN in an application and have an efficient system, first we essential to consider about WSN technology, comp oneness(a)nts and communication topology and protocols. Therefore, first, in this chapter, basic information about WSN theatrical roles, the communication devices and process unit of WSN go away be described. Then, the chapter will be followed by a description of the WSN topologies and protocols emphasizing on mesh WSN technology with ZigBee Protocol.1.1 Wireless Sensor Network componentTo provide comprehensive view of WSN hardware, understanding of WSN components structure is required. Wireless sensors are sm whole micro controllers equipped with wireless communication device and an zilch supplier. The architecture of WSNs is illustrated in prognosticate 31 .As Figure 31 shows the components of WSNs are sensing unit, processing unit, motive supplier and communication device. The sensing unit consists of sensors and Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs). ADCs are answer satisfactory for gathering the augurs and converting them into digital signals info and transfer them done severally other using electronic network topology to the processor unit. In the sensing unit, each sensor is called an end knob and varies in size and cost. The mission of these multifunction sensor nodes are to sense, process data and collaborate with other nodes 8. Wireless sensor network can be positioned in two ways, both using a complex technique with the large sensors far from the object or using several sensors with an engineered practice on position and topology 5. In addition, each node provided with a wireless communication transceiver as a communication component.In the process unit, the controller and small memory storage are am alter for managing the collaboration within the s ensors to achieve the assigning task. In addition, the communication device with a transceiver makes the network fraternity. supra all, the essential component of WSN is the power unit, which supports the power for all units 5.One of the unique characteristics of sensor networks is that they are equipped with an on-board processor. This feature enables them to locally process some guileless computations and broadcast only necessary processed data 5. Network communication is really complicated and unavoidablenesss years of study 8, but to be able to implement WSN, we need to know some basic primary concepts of communication technology such as network topologies, network protocol and their measuring sticks and specifications.1.2 conversation technologyTo cover technical aspects of WSN, network topology and network protocol studying is needed. This study will help to provide information about reliability, robustness, security and stability and of WSNs software aspect to answer t he research questions RQ. 1 ,RQ. 2 and RQ. 3 .1.2.1 Topologies in WSN conversationIn network communication, the big issue is how data transfers through nodes and nodes interconnect with each other. Several basic network topologies may be used for transmitting to and receiving from a node. The Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) the standards organization of telecommunication patience explained the network topology as The personal, real, logical or virtual arrangement of the nods/elements of a network 9. The topology shows the diameter and the number of nodes between any two nodes. Moreover how a data process and the data routing complexities are relied on the chosen topology. Consequently, some characteristics of a sensor networks such as latency, robustness and might are changed by their topology 10.Figure 32 is a graphic mapping of networks topology which shows the links of one or more(prenominal)(prenominal) nodes and explains the natural topology o f the network. Despite having the same topology, two networks can differ in transmission rates be ride of their material interaction, signal types and distance between nodes 9. Table 31 describes the various types of network topology.Table 31 Topology TYPES 9.Since Mesh topology is a main topic in the thesis, it is studied more in-depth in this section1.2.1.1 Mesh Wireless NetworkWireless mesh network is a term used when all wireless nodes are connected to each other within an ad-hoc multi-hob and mesh topology. In this network, any pair of nodes is able to communicate between each other within more than one course of instruction. In this network each node is used as a router to forward packets to the neighbor nodes which they have linked to. That means all nodes communicate at present or through other midway nodes without any manual configuration. Therefore, this network in any case called a self-configuration and self-organized network 11 12.As described in Table 31, there a re two types of mesh topology Partially connected and Fully connected (See Figure 33). In a fully connected topology each node has the ability to communicate with all other nodes in the network and creates an interconnection links. By increasing the number of nodes in a mesh network, the number of links increases as well. On the other hand, in a partially connected topology, instead of direct interconnection between nodes, each node has two or more links to others to provide alternate routing and traffic balancing. Due to more links and indirect connections between nodes, traffic can flow through one or more router nodes to the destination 7 and create more reliable interconnections between nodes.Moreover, in partial network, the nodes are connected to either the node with higher rate of data transaction or the nearest neighbor node while in fully connected network all nodes have a direct links with each other. This multiple link path conducts a reliable communication. Therefore, wh enever a connection fails or a node breaks down, the packages can automatically change their path by jumping from a disconnected node. This is often called the self-healing of the network. This means that the networks connection stability and reliability are non essentially affected by node failures 11.Due to the characteristics of wireless sensor network mesh, this network is self-configuring and self-organizing network in which each end-node is also used as a router (dual role- data originator /data router) to forward the signal packages all the way back of the main gateway.Therefore, due to the characteristics of mesh networks, this network is becoming one of the most implemented networks which able to have the flexible architecture for the network, easy self-configuration and robust charge tolerance connectivity 11 12. Additionally, the self-configuring characteristic of mesh WSN, bring the ability for the network to connect or disconnect nodes from the network. This brings th e ability to grow/decrease the network by adding/removing nodes of a system.Mesh WSN has reliable self-healing and robust fault tolerance. This means if a node fails or breaks down the signal packages jump from the disconnected node and automatically conducts a new path through the nearest node. However, the new path imposes re-routing and re-organizing to the network 5, which consumes too much power from the system. Therefore, having a power-aware protocol and algorithm is necessary for mesh network. ZigBee protocol is one of the protocols which provides this ability for WSN.1.2.2 Protocols in WSN CommunicationWSN systems allow variety of protocols for communication. Protocols need to program in different architectural shapes. One of these architectural standard is OSI (Open System Interconnection) framework. In this session a brief psychiatric hospital of each protocol and OSI are delineated.Figure 34 shows the graphic overview of all wireless network technologies. This figure illustrated IEEE pan out/LAN/MAN technologies and intelligibly shows how these standards and protocols can be used in different conditions. For instance, 3G protocol is used to cover a long range of audio information in a wide area network (WAN) while for the same information in a short range and personal area network (PAN), Bluetooth is better.The standard conceptual rules set for data representation, data communication and erroneousness detection across two ends in telecommunication, are called communication protocols. These abstract rules represent in different seams of communication. There are different protocol stacks introducing different architectures for these spirit levels such as AppleTalk, Distributed Systems Architecture (DSA), Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) and Open Systems Interconnect (ISO/OSI). Figure 35 (a) illustrates the different spirit levels of an OSI Model and their functionalities. The OSI model has seven layers and each layer provides services for the upper layer and requests services from the lower layer. Figure 35 (b) shows the typical communication protocols layers. Each of these layers has to deal with different issues regarding the communication procedure.As the typical protocol stack model shows in Figure 35 the communication protocols should implement all layers from bottom to top. In addition, a steering protocol needs to be applied in each layer to manage power efficiency, robust connectivity and connection reliability (see Figure 35 b). Below, rules and functionality for each layer are described* Physical layer is prudent for signal processing and somatogenetic interface connectivity between a device and corporal medium and used bit stream in its data unit. It acted as communication channel for sensing and actuation in cost-efficient and reliable manner. Some examples of this layer are IEEE 802.11b/g Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.4 ZigBee, etc. 7* Data link layer provides functionality toward channel sharing, Medium Access Control (MAC-Layer), timing (e.g. data time arrival), local link and capacity. It is responsible for detecting and correcting the data errors in physical layer and control the locality data comparison. It follows the protocols such as point-to-point protocol (PPP) and IEEE 802 Local Link Control (LLC). 7* Network layer is responsible for network routing functionality, network security, energy and power efficiency and reliability of the communication. It implicates the network topology management and manages the information and detects errors in data transfer from router to router. A number of protocols is address in this layer such as Internet protocol (IP), Threshold Sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network Protocol and etc. 7.* Transport layer provides passim transportation (distributing and gathering) of data between end users. It includes storage and responds for caching and controlling the data to recover them back to the initial message that has been sent. Best-known protocols for this layer are transmission system Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 7.* Upper layers The Upper Layers are responsible for application processing, external query processing and etc. Upper layers include presentation layer session layer and application layer 7.The summary of these standards and protocols are shown in Figure 36Among all the standard and protocols, IEEE PAN/LAN/MAN technologies are the ones applied in the majority of commercialWSNs to support physical layer and link-data layer signal transmission. As SOHRABY and ZNATI (2007) mentioned, the most common known protocols are (1) the IEEE 802.15.1 (also known as Bluetooth) (2) the IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n series of wireless LANs (3) the IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee) (4) the MAN-scope IEEE 802.16 (also known as WiMax) and (5) radio-frequency identification (RFID) tagging 7. Each of these protocols has their own benefits and constraints. The comparisons between IEEE technologies are m entioned in Table 32. As Table 32 shows the IEEE 802.15.4 standard provides data rate of 20 to 250 kbps and operates in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. This standard covers signals in range of 10 m and requires the lowest power among other IEEE class. While IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n transmits the data in the rate of 54 Mbps idol for wireless internet connections and operates in the 2.4-GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) radio band as well as the 5-GHz ISM / 5-GHz U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) radio band. However, it requires much higher power consumption than IEEE 802.15 7.Recently, researchers put much effort to develop a cost-effective standards-based wireless networking solution that supports low-to medium data rates, has low power consumption, and guarantees security and reliability 7. ZigBee Alliance is an association of companies which aims to provide such a standard for WSN consumers. Their mission is to have a simple, reliable, low-cost, low-power and stan dards-based wireless platform1.2.2.1 ZigBee standardThe ZigBee standard builds on IEEE 802.15.4 and is suitable for remote monitoring and controlling applications. Although it has lower-data-rates than the other standards, its reliability, security, long life battery with less complexity mechanism make it ideal for twist automation in industrial network applications. The architecture of the ZigBee stack is established on the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The IEEE 802.15.4 defines the physical layer (PHY) and medium retrieve control (MAC) sub-layer and In addition, ZigBee Alliance defines other functionalities for upper layers 7. Figure 37 is a graphic overview of ZigBee protocol stack and shows the responsibility areas of IEEE 802.15.4, ZigBee Alliance platform and users applications 7. This picture also shows the basic functionality of each layer.The data transmission service is provided by PHY layer and the protocol in this layer enables the connection between data u nits and the physical radio channel. ZigBee provides three different frequency band options for PHY layer. First, the transmission data-rate of 250kbps in 16 channels at 2.45GHz (Global) frequency. Second, with 40Kbps in 10 channels at 915MHz (Americas). And the last one, with 20kbps in 1 channel at 868MHz (Europe). The higher data-rate causes a higher order in modulation design and the lower frequency cause a larger cover area and better sensitivity. Depending on the power output, the transmission distance rate can change from 1 to 100 meters. (For more detail information see Table 71 in Appendix A)ZigBee WSN has the ability to have static or dynamic network/component with either star or mesh topology and it has three types of nodes a ZigBee Coordinator (ZC), ZigBee Routers (ZR), and ZigBee End-Devices (ZED).In order to have a communication protocol and physical connection both PHY layer and MAC sub-layers of the architecture should be defined upon agreement between server and thi ckenings. These layers require manual administrative procedures setting for server/client gateway.The next three levels namely the network layer, security protocol and transport layer are defined by ZigBee alliance platform automatically. The last layer, application layer, has to interact with the user-interface and other applications it ought to be programmed with high-level language so that integration with any existing devices applications becomes more conveniently practical.The ZigBee stack in gateway is responsible for all the network functionality such as network process management, authentication of the joined nodes, binding nodes and routing the messages throughout the network. ZigBee stack as a standard protocol, has clusters and libraries for meliorate the implementation process, therefore, using ZigBee compare to other protocols makes the system (including both hardware and software) development process much faster and easier. On the other hand, such calibration provide s easiness of adopt with third party sensors regardless of manufacturer, which might be attached to the network later.2 Software AspectsTo address the research question regarding the reliability, robustness, and security of any WSN application, it is essential to investigate the software architecture of that network. For convenience in description of the architecture of a WSN application, it is divided into three segments Physical devices (such as lamps, sensors, nodes), Communication Protocol (terminals and servers, bridge, switch, network topology and standard) and Carried Information (application, functions, etc.).Any attempts to retain a precise design on software architecture for each part will cause an effective data transmission, which ensures reliability and security of the system 7. whence achieving any desired data transmission precision level in a WSN, network management (NM) techniques are applicable. Such techniques assist in network status monitoring, reliability and security amendment, and cooperation supervision between components 7. NM techniques could also detect and resolve network faults in addition to restoring the system respectively 7.In practice, designing WSN application necessitates tailoring NM techniques for each architectural segment. Various NM techniques regarding each segment are summarized as follows 7 12 5a) Physical architectureSensing and processing management, operation and administration, fault tolerance, criminal maintenance, energy efficiency management, configuration management, functioning management, security management, network element management.b) Communication architectureNetwork management, networking protocols, network topology, function management, monitoring functions, fault management, performance management, security management, service management and communication, maintenance management, network configuration and organization, network behavior, data delivery model, sensor mobility, naming and localizati on, sensing coverage area, communication coverage area energy efficiency managementc) Information architectureReal-time information management, mapping management, service management, analyze information, control application, business application management report management, sending and receiving commands or response, naming, localization, maintenance, fault toleranceAforementioned NM techniques enhance quality of the system. According to ISO 9126-1 software quality model Table 41 13 14 15, the quality characteristics of a system could be divided into six fundamental properties functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, maintainability, and portability. According to the same documentation, these characteristics are broken to sub-characteristics such as suitability, security, maturity, fault tolerance, adaptability, analyzability, stability, testability and so on 13. However, nidus on all subcategories collectively exceeds the time horizon of this research, from this stance three dimensions namely reliability, robustness and security are brought into attention.This section will be divided to two subsections describing the architecture issues and NM techniques for (1) Reliability and Robustness, (2) Security, of WSN and other characteristics is relegated to future studies.2.1 Reliability and RobustnessIn WSNs context, the probability that a network functions properly and aggregates trustworthy data without any break of serve continuously, is usually referred to as reliability characteristic of the network 23 20. According to ISO 9126-1 software quality documentation, reliability characteristic shows the capability of a network to maintain or re-built (re-start) the service in certain period of time 13. So, it is important that during long sensing, the network has to service up continuously. Reliable service of a network includes precise and proper sensing, delivering and sending acceptable data to the base station. In other words as Taherkordi et al. (2006) put The less loss of interest data, leads us to higher reliability of a system. Systematic approach perceives reliability as probability of data delivery to the base station rather than point-to-point reliability 16.Robustness defined by Sohraby et al. (2007) as a combination of reliability, availability, and dependability requirements, reflects the degree of the protocol insensitivity to errors and misinformation. Achieving system robustness in WSN, necessitates system capability to detect, tolerate and confine errors as well as reconfigure and restart the network respectively 7. According to the given definition by Sohraby et al. (2007), it is apprehensible that reliability and robustness share commonalities with each other this is the main rational behind discussing these two attributes together in this section 7.Considering the nature of communication in WSN, a network is unpredictable and prone to fail caused by any physical damages in hardware devices, energy depletio n, communication link error, information collapses in packages and etc. 17 16. Therefore, one of the critical issues in design phase of WSN is applying fault tolerance techniques to optimize the network so that reliability and robustness attained 17. These techniques enable the network to withstand and recover any upcoming failure and restart operation 13.Liu et al. (2009) categorized fault tolerance techniques into node placement, topology control, target and slip detection, data gathering and aggregation, and sensor surveillance. Reminding from the beginning of this chapter architecture design divided into three segments. Table 42 depicted a summary of the pat related faults and their solutions in each segment. In the following, each aforementioned fault tolerance techniques are being discussed in each design segment.Table 42 The most probable fault and their fault tolerance solutions in WSN 17 7 182.1.1 Reliability and Robustness of Physical Architecture Fault any physical inte rruption in sensor surveillance Solution Node placement management and signal-effect managementFirst item that should be considered in designing physical components architecture for reliability and Robustness is physical placement and signal-effect management. As it is mentioned in section 3, although the mesh network communication is self-organize topology and does not need any manual configuration to bind the network for mobile sensors, the physical architecture and the location schema of the hardware components, sensors and gateways need to be designed carefully 7.As a characteristic of mesh WSN, the sensors in network are free of any installation restrictions, even though, the placement should be far from any physical destruction or hostile locations. Inappropriate physical placement of sensor transmitters and gateway antenna can cause noise or significant unconnected in signals 7. In addition, the signal coverage is decayed by surrounding objects and materials such as metal wa ll and the like. (E.g. exterior wooden, concrete, brick or gypsum frame, block or wall). Especially in the case of vehicles, the main body can impose such problem and henceforth installation of the sensors in this manner would be delicate.Moreover, the signal quavers might be faded and affected during the transmission, due to various physical phenomena such as reflection, diffraction or scattering 7. These effects would cause significant interruption in sensor surveillance. Therefore, it is important to manage these signal-effects in early stage of WSN physical architecture design.Reflection occurs when electromagnetic wave of signals is duplicated due to impinge of the wave on large object or surface such as walls, buildings and the Earth 7. Therefore, all the reflection of the walls and also the Earth should be acknowledged in physical architecture design.Diffraction refers to any defection and obstruction in waves caused by irregular sharp edges during the data transmission betw een the transmitter and receiver 7. In this case, designers have to be prudent in sensors placements in the proximity of sharp edges and corner angels.Scattering refers to any deviation from straight line. Environmental obstacles in the extension service path affect passing waves from their original structure. Even small irregular object such as street signs, and lampposts might encounter and scatter the wave. Hence WSN should be design to face with any irregular scattering during the wave transmission. Above all, the mobility of sensors and surrounding objects might fade the signals and add noises that should be considered in architecture design 7.These issues are the basic physical factors, which cause major fault in data aggregation of WSN and cut down reliability and robustness. These destructive signals need to be subtracted from the received signal paths 7 before sending the data to gateway. Therefore, reflection, diffraction and scattering should be considered not only by de signers in the physical components placements, but also by programmers in network development. Fault Sensors failure Solution Hardware replacementThe next issue that needs to be considered in designing the physical architecture of a WSN is hardware failure. Sensors energy suppliers or any damages to the sensors and/or their transmitters are the sources of hardware failure. Regardless of source of failure, the WSN must be competent of functioning as well as replacing and switching sensors when necessary. Additionally, any changes in the physical components, on one hand, needs an explicit and well-defied consideration on security issue to prevent any potential threats, and on the other hand, needs an adaptable and configurable communication connection network 18.2.1.2 Reliability and Robustness of Communication Architecture Fault communication link errors SolutionTopology control and event detection , Replicated services in communication model,Communication link error is an important concern in dealing with reliability and robustness of a network in communication architecture. The sensors in WSN are prone to fail and make link errors in point-to-point reliability of communication protocol. Therefore, it is the network topology responsibility to detect the errors and guarantee the overall reliability of the syste

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